: The Portuguese, seeking to monopolize the spice trade after capturing Malacca in 1511, attacked and eventually conquered Samudera Pasai.
: According to the Hikayat Raja-Raja Pasai , the tyrannical behavior of Sultan Ahmad , who reportedly killed his own sons out of jealousy, contributed significantly to the loss of public and military trust. External Factors of Collapse : The Portuguese, seeking to monopolize the spice
: The Majapahit Empire, led by Gajah Mada , attacked Samudera Pasai to control its lucrative spice trade and maritime dominance. : By the 15th century, Malacca had emerged
: By the 15th century, Malacca had emerged as a more strategic and efficient trading hub, causing international merchants to bypass Pasai’s ports. : By the 15th century
The collapse of , the first Islamic kingdom in the Indonesian archipelago, was not caused by a single event but rather a combination of internal conflicts and external pressures during the 14th to 16th centuries.